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Introduction

In a study of the learning style of adult ESL students, Willing (1985) found four different learner types:

Concrete learners - who prefer the use of games, audio-visuals and pair work

Analytical learners - who prefer structured study methods and texts, verbal-linguistic activities and self-correction

Communicative learners - who prefer the use of role plays, simulations and realia

Authority-oriented learners - who need detailed explanations, take copious notes and frequently use manipulatives

In addition to the citing of these four types (J.C. Richards, 2004) there are these five “typical” classroom types that I think teachers should be familiar with. Here they are with some suggestions on strategies to teach them.

1. The Learning Disabled Student

Poorly prepared since primary school with highly underdeveloped basic skills, this type of learner may even be deficient in their L1, or first language.

Teaching Strategy: A healthy dose of patience and adapting materials to their preferred learning characteristics are an absolute must.

2. The LEP Student

The Limited English Proficiency (LEP) learner has likely “progressed” through earlier or lower levels solely by means of “piggy-backing” off the abilities of a more proficient classmate or partner. You, as the teacher, are now faced with a beginning level student in an intermediate or higher level class.

Teaching Strategy: Remedial work outside of class contact hours is going to be required here. Reinforce work from lower levels through tutoring sessions, workshops or even “extra” classes outside the required norms to help this learner to “catch up” to where they should be.

3. The Teacher’s Pet

Their homework is always done, practice activities are nearly perfect, their notes immaculate and useful, their hands go up instantly in response to a question or activity. The Teacher’s Pet is a teacher’s dream. Yes, they’re out there and the experience of teaching them is a truly memorable one.

Teaching Strategy: This is where having those prepared extra assignments and activities really pays off. The Teacher’s Pet will finish the normally-provided exercises and activities fairly quickly and frequently well ahead of the other students. So enjoy and whip those “extras” on them -they’ll love you for it.

4. The “Unteachable” Student

The bane of nearly all educators, they don’t even want to be present in class, let alone actually learn anything. They’re often a constant distraction; inattentive, boisterous, disturbing all around them. No books, participation or homework proceeds from anywhere in their direction. Seemingly responding to neither carrot nor stick, the “unteachable” student can make strong teachers weak and weak teachers “throw in the towel” and become accountants.

Teaching Strategy: What’s needed here are some insights into the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations of these students. Only then do you have a shot at motivating or interesting them in their didactic surroundings. Find out - quickly - if there’s a way to reach them an act on it pronto or the both of you will lose out.

5. The Extremist

Whether they’re Musical - Rhythmic, Visual - Spatial or another overly dominant Multiple Intelligence to the extreme, these learners could tax the patience of Job himself. They might whistle, hum, chat, talk on their cell phone, scribble or doodle incessantly. Take note of it and learn to use it to draw them into the class and teach them

Teaching Strategy: Don’t fight against them. Turn the tables on the situation and use their overwhelmingly dominant traits to teach them. Even if they’re the only one with that particular learning characteristic in your class group - use it to your - and their advantage.

Get to know these learner types and familiarize yourself with techniques and didactics to manage them effectively in class before they get to you. It will make your teaching experiences all the richer, more memorable and aid you in developing as a first-rate educator. Please feel free to contact me at lynchlarrym@gmail.com with any questions, comments or for more information.

Prof. Larry M. Lynch is an expert author and photographer offering Web Content Writing Services for top-quality articles on: Education, Language learning, Salt and Fresh water fishing, exotic foods, South American travel and culture, Ethnic issues - Blacks, Latinos, Indian native tribes, Health, Internet business resources and more His work has appeared in Transitions Abroad, South American Explorer, Escape From America, Mexico News, Brazil magazine and hundreds of sites online. For fr*e*e sample articles and available web content e-mail: lynchlarrym@gmail.com

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While the lure of “learning English or another foreign language while you sleep” may be highly provocative and tempting for all of us in this not-enough-time-to-do-everything world, there’s still no “easy out”. Learning a foreign language can be a life-long pursuit or a summer project. In this second installment of our quest, we’ll briefly examine some theoretical approaches to English language or foreign language learning.

Theoretical Approaches

English Language Teaching and Learning theories support a number of useful, valid approaches for foreign language or second language acquisition. Considering the major language learning theories previously or currently prevalent, let’s briefly examine any basis for “sleep learning”. The following language learning theories have all been popular or prevalent during our current or recent decades:

Grammar / Translation method (F. Boas and O. Jespersen)

Direct Methods

Audio-Lingual (Darian, 1972 et al.)

Computer-Aided Language Learning

TPR - Total Physical Response (J. Asher, 1965)

The Silent Way (Gattegno, 1972)

The Communicative Approach

Suggestopedia (Lozanov, 1978)

The Natural Approach (Krashen-Terrell, 1983)

Neuro-linguistic Programming (Bandler and Grindler, 1982)

The Lexical Approach (Willis, 1990 et al.)

Community Language Learning ( C. Curran et al., 1972)

Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, (H. Gardner, 1983) while not strictly a language-learning theory, nonetheless, has had considerable application to language learning and acquisition. Of these, the following have aspects which seemingly might promote or support the concept of “sleep learning”. They are: The Silent Way (Gattegno, 1972), Suggestopedia (Lozanov, 1978), and Neuro-Linguistic Programming (Bandler and Grindler, 1982). Let’s briefly examine each of these.

The Silent Way

The Silent Way (ref. Richards and Rodgers, 2004) was developed by Caleb Gattegno (Gattegno, 1972) and is a method based on the premise that the English, or foreign language teacher, should be “silent” as much as possible and the language learner encouraged to produce as much language as possible. But while the method requires minimal external input on the part of the language teacher, it does provide for problem-solving, “discovery learning” and creation of memorable images to facilitate learner recall. Problem-solving and discovery learning certainly can not occur during the noted stages of sleep. Creation of “memorable imagery” is possible, especially during the dream state, but how many learners remember these images with any frequency?

Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia, also known as Desuggestopedia, developed by Georgi Lozanov (Lozanov, 1978) is based on a “science concerned with the systematic study of non-rational or non-conscious influences”. Music and musical rhythm to place the learner in a relaxed state, called Psuedo-Passiveness, (also ref. Krashen-Terrell, 1983; the Affective Filter Hypothesis) and to pace or structure the linguistic material also figure heavily in this approach. But using this method, learners must still “visualize” a context for the material to aid in its memorization. Materials are dramatized through varying tone and rhythm of audio readings the learner listens to. Cognitive skills such as context visualization and memorization are not actively applied to learning during stages of sleep.

Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP)

Neuro-linguistic Programming or NLP is a collection of techniques, patterns and strategies for assisting effective communication, personal growth, change and learning based on a series of underlying assumptions about how the mind works and how people act and interact. (Revell and Norman, 1997) In the mid-1970s, John Grindler (Bandler and Grindler, 1982) and Richard Bandler (Bandler, 1985) developed NLP as an alternate form of psychological therapy. A series of step-by-step procedures that would enable people to improve their lives, therapist could use these techniques in building rapport with clients, gather information about their views and help them to achieve goals and bring about personal change. (ref. Richards and Rodgers, 2004)

A behaviorist approach though, requires conscious effort and application of cognitive, meta-cognitive, communicative and social strategies. (Rubin, 1987) As such, this does not take place in full during stages of sleep. Conscious, active effort and application are genuinely required over an extended period of time for full benefit. For an even more detailed look at implicit and explicit approaches to teaching and learning grammar, see the article: “Grammar Teaching: Implicit or Explicit” available online at:

http://ezinearticles.com/?Grammar-Teaching:-Implicit-or-Explicit?&id=89342

Apart from theory, methodology and didactics, language is a communicative tool. It allows us, as humans, to share our knowledge, thoughts and ideas in a way and at a level that none of the other animal species ever can. But what actually constitutes good practice in English or foreign language learning? How can we identify or become a good language learner? In the third installment of the article series, “Can you really learn English or another foreign language while you sleep?”, we’ll examine some of the many aspects of good language learners.

Prof. Larry M. Lynch is an ELT Teacher Trainer, English language learning expert author and university professor in Cali, Colombia. He has published more than 350 articles and academic papers and presented at numerous EFL teacher training and TEFL conferences throughout North America, South America and Europe. For comments, questions, requests, to receive more information or to be added to his free TESOL articles and teaching materials mailing list, e-mail: lynchlarrym@gmail.com

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Apart from theory, methodology and didactics, language is a communicative tool. It allows us, as humans, to share our knowledge, thoughts and ideas in a way and at a level that none of the other animal species ever can. But what actually constitutes good practice in English or foreign language learning? How can we identify or become a good language learner? In this third installment of the article series, “Can you really learn English or another foreign language while you sleep?”, we’ll examine some of the many aspects of good language learners.

A Good Language Learner

Another aspect to consider in English or foreign language learning is, “What is a good language learner?” Rubin identifies seven characteristics that comprise a good language learner. As a quick mention they are;

A good language learner:

Is a willing and accurate guesser

Has a strong drive to communicate

Is uninhibited

Attends to form

Practices - seeks out conversations

Monitors own speech and the speech of others

Attends to meaning

All of these aspects are based on cognitive, meta-cognitive or conscious, communicative and social competencies (Rubin, 1975). In the reference article, “Are You a Good Language Learner?” further aspects are discussed in more detail. It’s available online at:
http://ezinearticles.com/?English-Language-Teaching-and-Learning:-Are-You-a-Good-Language-Learner?&id=242001

Learners Come in Different Flavors

While educators try to treat students as individuals, with varied backgrounds, aptitudes and needs, in a system driven by a mass-production philosophy, this is a daunting task. Learners are different however and applied theories such as the Dual Psychology or “split-brain” theory of Roger Sperry which identifies competencies “housed” in either the left or right brain hemispheres, or the Triune Brain Model of Paul MacLean (National Institute for Mental Health) which explains inter-related functions of the neo-cortex (thinking cap), limbic (or mammalian brain) and the primitive-reptilian brain, help us to understand the workings of the human brain in a language learning and acquisition context. The Brain Dominance Model proposed by researcher, Ned Hermann, has also been instrumental in co-relating personality, learning style and language learning and acquisition. None of these theories or models however, lend credence or support to an extensive system based on “sleep-learning”.

Cerebral Cortex Development

In a study during the 1960’s by UC-Berkeley Biologist Marion Diamond, two sets of rats were raised in different environments.

One set had toys to play with, playmates to romp with and a roomy box that was kept clean and fresh.

The second set was put in solitary confinement; all alone in a much smaller cage with no toys to enjoy.

After several weeks, Diamond measured the size of each rat’s cerebral cortex, which is responsible for higher nerve functions. The rats in the sociable, clean and stimulating environment grew brains bigger than the rats with the impoverished surroundings.
Does the enriched environment increase the dimensions of the brain, and does the impoverished environment decrease the dimensions of the brain? The answer, very clearly, was yes. Development of the cerebral cortex (and language processing center) requires conscious, active stimulation.

At this point in time, there is not yet a way to “plug-in” or “pour” language into the human brain. With the continual rise in the study of English as a foreign or second language, (EFL, ESL) progressive TEFL English and foreign language teachers, foreign language learners, and educational administrators need to be aware of the implications posed by claims of “learning English (or another foreign language) while you sleep. While the lure of “learning English or another foreign language while you sleep” may be highly provocative and tempting for all of us in this not-enough-time-to-do-everything world, there’s still no “easy out”. Learning a foreign language can be a life-long pursuit or a summer project, but with competent teaching, dynamic methodologies and skilled English and foreign language teaching professionals, it can all be worth the effort.

Prof. Larry M. Lynch is an ELT Teacher Trainer, English language learning expert author and university professor in Cali, Colombia. He has published more than 350 articles and academic papers and presented at numerous EFL teacher training and TEFL conferences throughout North America, South America and Europe. For comments, questions, requests, to receive more information or to be added to his free TESOL articles and teaching materials mailing list, e-mail: lynchlarrym@gmail.com

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